Thanks very much for writing this, I think you did a very clear job with the graphics and scenarios laying out the considerations.
I do wonder though if you have somewhat stacked the deck in favour of the hedonist account here:
Now imagine Tortured Tim, an individual who is experiencing extraordinarily intense physical suffering. Nevertheless, he may have many other goods in his life: friendship, romantic love, knowledge, practical skills, and so on.
This is a pretty extreme (‘extraordinarily intense’) pain scenario, vs fairly pedestrian goods like ‘friendship’. I think some people’s intuitions might be quite different in this sort of scenario:
Now imagine Tortured Tim, an individual who is experiencing extraordinarily intense physical suffering due to frostbite on his trip to the North Pole. Nevertheless, he has a bond of brotherhood with his fellow adventures , who have been his best friends since elementary school and view this trip as the culmination of years of training, putting a huge personal importance on succeeding in this feat. He is also sustained by daily calls with his high school sweetheart, who has supported him all the way and with whom he is excited to marry and start a family with upon his return. Finally, he knows that by doing this trip, he is fulfilling his promise to his grandfather, who taught him so much and would have loved to be there.
In this example, where I’ve tried to fill in the positive good examples to have a higher, more ‘extraordinarily intense’ magnitude, and be more specific, it does seem pretty plausible to me that Tim is experiencing positive welfare at that moment. It’s definitely not the case that I would feel qualified, as an outside to observer, to contradict Tim’s claim that this is a very positive experience for him.
I feel the force of this. However, I confess that as you rachet up the intensity of his suffering, I become less and less convinced that he’s net positive. I do think that the goods you’re describing can outweigh a lot of pain. But when I imagine hypothermia setting in—shivering uncontrollably, with muscles spasming and aching—I lose the sense that he’s net positive.
But suppose you disagree and think he’s net positive even then. I guess my question is: howpositive is he? Do you still think it’s a borderline case? If so, then we’re still learning a lot about the relationship between Tim’s hedonic and non-hedonic welfare capacity. And that’s probably enough for the main conclusion of the post, which is that a different theory of welfare wouldn’t make more than an order of magnitude difference.
I guess my question is: howpositive is he? Do you still think it’s a borderline case?
In general I think it is hard to judge how much better one scenario is than another. But one way of getting at this is to add extra costs to one side of the scale. I think if you told me Tim had paid $10,000 to go on this trip, my evaluation of whether or not it was a good idea wouldn’t significantly change vs if he paid $20,000, or if it was free. Similarly, my evaluation also wouldn’t change a lot if he was hungry. So that makes me think my intuition is this is a pretty positive experience.
I can certainly believe this is a scenario where our fundamental intuitions just differ and there’s not much more to say on the topic.
I wonder if your original description is compatible with “extraordinarily intense physical pain”. Or, maybe it could still be extraordinary, but well within what’s bearable and far from torture. Could he carry on a conversation with his high school sweetheart if the pain were intense enough, or be excited to marry her, or think about his promise to his grandfather? When pain reaches a certain level of intensity, I expect it to be very difficult to focus attention on other things. And, to the extent that he is focusing his attention on other things and away from the pain, the pain’s hedonic intensity is reduced.
Imagine he’s also or instead having a panic attack. Or, instead of the trip, he’s undergoing waterboarding as a cultural rite of passage (with all the same goods, similar ones or greater ones from your original description). How long could the average person be voluntarly waterboarded for any purpose? (EDIT: Or for some personal positive good in particular? I can imagine a sense of duty, e.g. to prevent greater harm to others or harm to loved ones in particular, allowing someone to last a long time, and those may figure into welfare range, but I probably wouldn’t describe these in terms of positive goods, or maybe even bads, so that they can’t be put on a ratio scale, only an interval scale at most.) These seem intense enough to consume attention. (I honestly don’t have much intuitive sense of how painful frostbite can be.)
(I also don’t expect added hunger to make much difference to his hedonic welfare in the moment, because he’ll be focusing on the much more intense pain. Less sure about financial costs, although those would probably not really affect his welfare during the trip itself.)
I worry a bit we might be introducing some confusion here. As far as I am aware, there is disagreement about whether welfare is constuted only by things you can experience (e.g. happiness, pain, pride, excitement, the-feeling-of-being-in-love) or whether it can also include things that you are not directly aware of (e.g. your welfare is reduced by infidelity, even if you are unaware).
If we believe that welfare is only determined by things you can experience, then I agree with you that when the pain is sufficient that he can’t direct his attention to the good things, his overall welfare is going to tank. But then I’m not sure it’s the pain outweighing the other things; rather, I think it’s the pain having a indirect negative effect on his welfare by reducing the goods as well as the direct negative effect. So really now we’re comparing a large hedonic value to a smaller non-hedonic value, and hence can’t draw any conclusions about the maximum possible size of the two things. Only a scenario in which both are able to be experienced to their greatest extent can allow for such a comparison.
And if welfare is not only determined by things we directly experience? Well, to the extent that things you’re not aware of can increase your welfare, I think I would just bite the bullet and say his welfare is indeed high, even if he has trouble focusing on that.
I’m not convinced by this response, but I think this is my best guess.
Seems right, Larks. But I don’t set things up this way in the post—or didn’t mean to, anyway. I grant that he can have all the non-hedonic goods while being tortured for exactly the reason you mention. But then I still want to say: those non-hedonic goods don’t make him net positive.
FWIW, I’ve given this thought experiment to hard-core objective list theorists and they just bite the bullet, insisting that his life is well worth living even while being tortured. Clearly, then, we aren’t going to get agreement based on this thought experiment alone. However, I can’t help but think that they’re confusing meaningfulness with prudential goodness. I concede that a life could be meaningful in the face of torture—or even precisely because of it in some circumstances. But many meaningful lives are bad for the people who live them, which is partly why they’re heroic for continuing them.
If the pain is so strong he can’t focus on and appreciate some good he otherwise would without the pain, isn’t this his brain itself deciding the pain is more important? I think this is the cognitive process of motivational salience, which integrates both positive (incentives, pleasure, desire) and negative (aversion, unpleasantness). If (actual or hypothetical/idealized) motivational salience determines importance, then measures of attention during joint exposure experiments are plausibly more reliable for ranking importance than people’s statements, because the latter can be subject to additional biases, e.g. believing your commitments, especially to others, are more important than your pain serves your self-image as a good person, partner, friend, child or parent.
You could use more direct measures of motivational salience, including while separately exposed to the good or the pain and this is plausibly closer to what we want to actually measure to determine the scale, but I’d expect the same rankings from measuring attention during joint exposure, all else equal. Similarly if you used some measure of felt (hedonic, desire) intensity directly when separately exposed, although I’m less sure positive and negative would even be commensurable with such a measure. I have read attention disruption is one of the functions of pain, so maybe joint exposure experiments would be negatively biased.
However, if reflective preferences are what matter or are part of it, then for those we would probably use people’s (and other animal’s) statements or choices. We’d still have to worry about some of the same biases in people, though, but then intense pain may especially interfere with reflection. It’s also not clear to me how we would construct an absolute scale to use across even humans, let alone across all animals or possible conscious beings. Even if there isn’t one, that doesn’t rule reflective preferences out, but then the implications seem much less clear. We might get incomparability between beings or even for the same being over time.
(Actual or hypothetical/idealized) motivational salience, felt intensity and reflective preferences could be different kinds of welfare, possibly incommensurable, if they’re determined by very different kinds of valuing systems.
I did have in mind that non-experientialist goods could count, but as you suggest, experientialist goods (or goods that depend on their acknowledgement to count, including non-hedonic ones, so other than pleasure) would probably be weakened during torture, so that could introduce a confounder. The comparison now would be mostly be between hedonic bads and non-experientialist goods.
Another issue is how to determine the weight of non-experientialist goods, especially if we don’t want to be paternalistic or alienating. If we do so by subjective appreciation, then it seems like we’re basically just turning them back into experientialist goods. If we do so via subjective weights (even if someone can’t appreciate a good at the time, they might still insist it’s very important and we could infer how good it is for them), its subjective weight could also be significantly reduced during torture. So we still wouldn’t necessarily be comparing the disvalue of torture to the maximum value of non-experientialist goods using Tim’s judgement while being tortured.
Instead, if we do still want to use subjective weights, we might consider the torture and non-hedonic goods happening at different times (and in different orders?), for equal durations, and ask Tim during the torture, during the non-hedonic goods and at other times whether the non-hedonic goods make up for the torture. If the answers agree, then great. But if they disagree, this could be hard to resolve, because Tim’s answer could be biased in each situation: he underweights non-hedonic goods during torture and otherwise while not focusing on them, and he underweights torture while not being tortured.
EDIT: On the other hand, if I tried to come up with a cognitively plausible objective cardinal account of subjective weights and value, I’d expect torture to be able to reach the max or get close to it, and that would be enough to say that negative hedonic welfare can be at least about as bad as goods can be good (in aggregate, in a moment).
Thanks very much for writing this, I think you did a very clear job with the graphics and scenarios laying out the considerations.
I do wonder though if you have somewhat stacked the deck in favour of the hedonist account here:
This is a pretty extreme (‘extraordinarily intense’) pain scenario, vs fairly pedestrian goods like ‘friendship’. I think some people’s intuitions might be quite different in this sort of scenario:
In this example, where I’ve tried to fill in the positive good examples to have a higher, more ‘extraordinarily intense’ magnitude, and be more specific, it does seem pretty plausible to me that Tim is experiencing positive welfare at that moment. It’s definitely not the case that I would feel qualified, as an outside to observer, to contradict Tim’s claim that this is a very positive experience for him.
Great case, Larks! Thanks for sharing.
I feel the force of this. However, I confess that as you rachet up the intensity of his suffering, I become less and less convinced that he’s net positive. I do think that the goods you’re describing can outweigh a lot of pain. But when I imagine hypothermia setting in—shivering uncontrollably, with muscles spasming and aching—I lose the sense that he’s net positive.
But suppose you disagree and think he’s net positive even then. I guess my question is: how positive is he? Do you still think it’s a borderline case? If so, then we’re still learning a lot about the relationship between Tim’s hedonic and non-hedonic welfare capacity. And that’s probably enough for the main conclusion of the post, which is that a different theory of welfare wouldn’t make more than an order of magnitude difference.
Thanks for your response!
In general I think it is hard to judge how much better one scenario is than another. But one way of getting at this is to add extra costs to one side of the scale. I think if you told me Tim had paid $10,000 to go on this trip, my evaluation of whether or not it was a good idea wouldn’t significantly change vs if he paid $20,000, or if it was free. Similarly, my evaluation also wouldn’t change a lot if he was hungry. So that makes me think my intuition is this is a pretty positive experience.
I can certainly believe this is a scenario where our fundamental intuitions just differ and there’s not much more to say on the topic.
I wonder if your original description is compatible with “extraordinarily intense physical pain”. Or, maybe it could still be extraordinary, but well within what’s bearable and far from torture. Could he carry on a conversation with his high school sweetheart if the pain were intense enough, or be excited to marry her, or think about his promise to his grandfather? When pain reaches a certain level of intensity, I expect it to be very difficult to focus attention on other things. And, to the extent that he is focusing his attention on other things and away from the pain, the pain’s hedonic intensity is reduced.
Imagine he’s also or instead having a panic attack. Or, instead of the trip, he’s undergoing waterboarding as a cultural rite of passage (with all the same goods, similar ones or greater ones from your original description). How long could the average person be voluntarly waterboarded for any purpose? (EDIT: Or for some personal positive good in particular? I can imagine a sense of duty, e.g. to prevent greater harm to others or harm to loved ones in particular, allowing someone to last a long time, and those may figure into welfare range, but I probably wouldn’t describe these in terms of positive goods, or maybe even bads, so that they can’t be put on a ratio scale, only an interval scale at most.) These seem intense enough to consume attention. (I honestly don’t have much intuitive sense of how painful frostbite can be.)
(I also don’t expect added hunger to make much difference to his hedonic welfare in the moment, because he’ll be focusing on the much more intense pain. Less sure about financial costs, although those would probably not really affect his welfare during the trip itself.)
Interesting point, thanks for raising.
I worry a bit we might be introducing some confusion here. As far as I am aware, there is disagreement about whether welfare is constuted only by things you can experience (e.g. happiness, pain, pride, excitement, the-feeling-of-being-in-love) or whether it can also include things that you are not directly aware of (e.g. your welfare is reduced by infidelity, even if you are unaware).
If we believe that welfare is only determined by things you can experience, then I agree with you that when the pain is sufficient that he can’t direct his attention to the good things, his overall welfare is going to tank. But then I’m not sure it’s the pain outweighing the other things; rather, I think it’s the pain having a indirect negative effect on his welfare by reducing the goods as well as the direct negative effect. So really now we’re comparing a large hedonic value to a smaller non-hedonic value, and hence can’t draw any conclusions about the maximum possible size of the two things. Only a scenario in which both are able to be experienced to their greatest extent can allow for such a comparison.
And if welfare is not only determined by things we directly experience? Well, to the extent that things you’re not aware of can increase your welfare, I think I would just bite the bullet and say his welfare is indeed high, even if he has trouble focusing on that.
I’m not convinced by this response, but I think this is my best guess.
Seems right, Larks. But I don’t set things up this way in the post—or didn’t mean to, anyway. I grant that he can have all the non-hedonic goods while being tortured for exactly the reason you mention. But then I still want to say: those non-hedonic goods don’t make him net positive.
FWIW, I’ve given this thought experiment to hard-core objective list theorists and they just bite the bullet, insisting that his life is well worth living even while being tortured. Clearly, then, we aren’t going to get agreement based on this thought experiment alone. However, I can’t help but think that they’re confusing meaningfulness with prudential goodness. I concede that a life could be meaningful in the face of torture—or even precisely because of it in some circumstances. But many meaningful lives are bad for the people who live them, which is partly why they’re heroic for continuing them.
Anyway, hard issues!
As one example, I think Richard Yetter Chappell, an objective list theorist, would say torture with maximal non-hedonic goods at the same time would be bad overall per moment: https://rychappell.substack.com/p/a-multiplicative-model-of-value-pluralism
If the pain is so strong he can’t focus on and appreciate some good he otherwise would without the pain, isn’t this his brain itself deciding the pain is more important? I think this is the cognitive process of motivational salience, which integrates both positive (incentives, pleasure, desire) and negative (aversion, unpleasantness). If (actual or hypothetical/idealized) motivational salience determines importance, then measures of attention during joint exposure experiments are plausibly more reliable for ranking importance than people’s statements, because the latter can be subject to additional biases, e.g. believing your commitments, especially to others, are more important than your pain serves your self-image as a good person, partner, friend, child or parent.
You could use more direct measures of motivational salience, including while separately exposed to the good or the pain and this is plausibly closer to what we want to actually measure to determine the scale, but I’d expect the same rankings from measuring attention during joint exposure, all else equal. Similarly if you used some measure of felt (hedonic, desire) intensity directly when separately exposed, although I’m less sure positive and negative would even be commensurable with such a measure. I have read attention disruption is one of the functions of pain, so maybe joint exposure experiments would be negatively biased.
However, if reflective preferences are what matter or are part of it, then for those we would probably use people’s (and other animal’s) statements or choices. We’d still have to worry about some of the same biases in people, though, but then intense pain may especially interfere with reflection. It’s also not clear to me how we would construct an absolute scale to use across even humans, let alone across all animals or possible conscious beings. Even if there isn’t one, that doesn’t rule reflective preferences out, but then the implications seem much less clear. We might get incomparability between beings or even for the same being over time.
(Actual or hypothetical/idealized) motivational salience, felt intensity and reflective preferences could be different kinds of welfare, possibly incommensurable, if they’re determined by very different kinds of valuing systems.
I did have in mind that non-experientialist goods could count, but as you suggest, experientialist goods (or goods that depend on their acknowledgement to count, including non-hedonic ones, so other than pleasure) would probably be weakened during torture, so that could introduce a confounder. The comparison now would be mostly be between hedonic bads and non-experientialist goods.
Another issue is how to determine the weight of non-experientialist goods, especially if we don’t want to be paternalistic or alienating. If we do so by subjective appreciation, then it seems like we’re basically just turning them back into experientialist goods. If we do so via subjective weights (even if someone can’t appreciate a good at the time, they might still insist it’s very important and we could infer how good it is for them), its subjective weight could also be significantly reduced during torture. So we still wouldn’t necessarily be comparing the disvalue of torture to the maximum value of non-experientialist goods using Tim’s judgement while being tortured.
Instead, if we do still want to use subjective weights, we might consider the torture and non-hedonic goods happening at different times (and in different orders?), for equal durations, and ask Tim during the torture, during the non-hedonic goods and at other times whether the non-hedonic goods make up for the torture. If the answers agree, then great. But if they disagree, this could be hard to resolve, because Tim’s answer could be biased in each situation: he underweights non-hedonic goods during torture and otherwise while not focusing on them, and he underweights torture while not being tortured.
EDIT: On the other hand, if I tried to come up with a cognitively plausible objective cardinal account of subjective weights and value, I’d expect torture to be able to reach the max or get close to it, and that would be enough to say that negative hedonic welfare can be at least about as bad as goods can be good (in aggregate, in a moment).